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Adjective relating to a type of review that is concerned with assembling and pooling data (either quantitative as with meta-analysis or qualitative as with thematic synthesis). To achieve such aggregation requires that there is basic comparability between phenomena.
Acronym for Behaviour; Health condition; Exclusions; Models or Theories to represent a systematic question formulation framework specifically designed when searching for theories, models or frameworks.
BEHeMoth Approach
Set of search procedures including, but extending beyond, use of the BeHEMoth question formulation that has been developed for identifying explicit use of theory to explain a particular phenomenon of interest.
Best fit framework synthesis
Approach that applies systematic methods to identify theories in a systematic manner, and to create the a priori framework for the (qualitative evidence) synthesis. Otherwise it uses an innovative combination of existing methods of quality assessment, analysis and synthesis to complete the (review) process.
Cochrane qualitative Methodological Limitations Tool.
CIS
See Critical Interpretive Synthesis.
CLUSTER method
A specific named method for tracking down additional papers associated with an index paper (sibling reports) (Booth et al 2013).
Cochrane EPOC Protocol and Review Template
A protocol template for a qualitative evidence synthesis produced by the Cochrane Effective Practice and Organisation of Care (EPOC) Group. It includes standard text to be used directly in a protocol or to be adapted as applicable. The template may subsequently be used to structure the full QES.
Cochrane Qualitative and Implementation Methods Group
Methods Group within the international Cochrane network with designated responsibility to develop and promote methods of qualitative evidence synthesis (QES) within the network.
Comprehensive literature search
A search designed to generate as comprehensive a list as possible of primary studies (articles, books, thesis, reports, etc), which may be suitable for answering the questions posed in the review. Topics and research questions are generally established in advance and searches are usually linear.
Concept
An explanatory idea.
Concept Analysis
Synthesis method used to identify concepts, viewpoints or ideas. Focuses on identifying the defining attributes of the concepts and can be used to develop a synthesis model (Tricco et al, 2016).
Conceptual framework
A network of linked concepts or ideas which come from the researcher’s own analysis or from existing theory, and which provide an understanding of the phenomenon under scrutiny.
Configurative
Adjective relating to a review approach that addresses open questions, typically answered with qualitative data and more iterative methods that interpret specific examples of things, by examining experiences and meaning to generate and explore theory.
Configurative / configuring
Adjective used to describe reviews that are trying to interpret and understand the world and that are interpreting and arranging (configuring) information and developing concepts.
Constant comparative method / constant comparison method
A research methodology that, when applied to reviews, requires the comparison of findings from an additional study with findings from previously reviewed studies in the quest for additional insights.
Construct(s)
As in first-order construct(s), second-order construct(s) and third-order construct(s) – terms sometimes used in meta-ethnographies. First order constructs are generally the findings as reported by primary study participants (e.g. quotations from them), second order constructs are the interpretation of those findings made by authors of the original study. Third order constructs are the interpretations of the synthesis team undertaking for instance the meta-ethnography review ( as they interpret the second order constructs and concepts from the studies they review).
Context
Composite of variables, other than population or intervention specific factors, that may impact upon the relevance of a review finding. These might include Time, Place, Health Care System, Setting.
Contributing studies
Subset of Included Studies that contributes to a specific Individual Finding.
CQIMG
See Cochrane Qualitative and Implementation Methods Group.
Critical appraisal
The use of explicit, transparent methods to assess the data in published research, by systematically considering such factors as validity, adherence to reporting standards, methods, conclusions and generalisability.
Critical interpretive synthesis
Involves an iterative approach to refining the research question and searching and selecting from the literature (using theoretical sampling) and defining and applying codes and categories. It also has a particular approach to appraising quality, using relevance – i.e. likely contribution to theory development – rather than methodological characteristics as a means of determining the ‘quality’ of individual papers’.
An analytic strategy to protect against the dangers of generalisation or caricature when synthesising qualitative evidence. The search for disconfirming evidence, or negative cases, is often considered a valuable strategy for assessing the credibility or validity of qualitative research claims.
Dissemination bias
“The systematic distortion of the phenomenon of interest, due to selective dissemination of qualitative studies or the findings of qualitative studies”.
Dissemination effects
Broad term referring to the impact of any decisions that may be made along the Dissemination Pathway, whether or not they result in a systematic distortion of the phenomenon of interest.
Dissonance
The characteristics of findings that run counter to the prevailing direction of a synthesis and that therefore add value by suggesting contextual variation or alternative hypotheses. See also Disconfirming case.
"The development of procedures that focus on the mutual interdependence among theory, method, and findings – findings that provide insights into what interventions work to produce what outcomes with what persons in what settings or environments. The ecological triangulation approach focuses on theory, method, interventions, persons, settings/environments and outcomes and the transactional relationship among these variables."
eMERGe
Tailored reporting guidance for presenting the Methods and findings of a meta-ethnography.
ENTREQ
Enhancing transparency in reporting the synthesis of qualitative research: tentative reporting standard for documenting qualitative evidence syntheses.
EPPI-Centre Review Also known as: EPPI-Centre Outcomes plus Views Review
Mixed method synthesis that encompasses studies measuring effectiveness (e.g. from randomised controlled trials) and studies investigating people’s views and experiences (from qualitative research) (Oliver, 2015). The Evidence for Policy and Practice Information and Coordinating Centre, Institute of Education, University of London sought to combine methods for assessing the likelihood of causal relationships with those that advance understanding of different social perspectives within a third, integrative review.
An assessment of the extent to which an intervention or programme is considered practicable, cost effective and sustainable within existing levels of experience/competency that helps to inform an assessment of relevance.
Findings
In primary qualitative research, findings refer to the results of the study that are based on the data collected through interviews, observations, or other methods of data collection. These findings are usually presented in a narrative format and are supported by direct evidence such as quotes from participants, themes that emerge from the data, and descriptions of experiences and phenomena.
First order construct(s)
Basic concepts identified in qualitative data, such as themes, categories, or patterns. These constructs are most typically derived from the participants’ own words and experiences, and they are used to develop a deeper understanding of the phenomenon being studied.
Focus of Interest
Suggested non-technical term as an accessible alternative to Phenomenon of Interest with non-qualitative or lay audiences.
Framework synthesis
Evidence product which ‘uses existing framework from stakeholder consultation or literature as a template for data extraction and analysis. Data not adequately explained by the existing framework is analysed inductively to create themes that populate a revised framework’ (Booth, 2016).
Initiative directly affiliated to GRADE that has developed an approach to provide guidance for assessing how much confidence to place in findings from systematic reviews of qualitative research (or qualitative evidence syntheses).
Grounded formal theory
Multi-step data analysis technique based on the works of four grounded theorists and the constant comparative method (Eaves, 2001).
Overarching term for synthesis methods for integrating qualitative and quantitative data. Can be used to guide the summary and analysis of literature in order to draw conclusions that provide a more comprehensive understanding of a focus of interest than existed prior to the review (Tricco et al, 2016). More specifically, "The integrative review method is an approach (primarily within nursing research) that allows for the inclusion of diverse methodologies (i.e. experimental and non-experimental research)." (Whittemore et al, 2005)
Interactive Summary of Qualitative Findings Tables (iSoQf )
Free online platform to assist review authors with applying the GRADE-CERQual approach to findings of a qualitative evidence synthesis and presenting these in Summary of Qualitative Findings (SoQF) and Evidence Profile tables. The tool is intended to make GRADE-CERQual assessments accessible to end-users, including decision-makers. The iSoQ tool is also designed to help review authors manage and archive data for GRADE-CERQual assessments.
Interpretation
A way of explaining the meaning of something.
Interpretive
Type of review that seeks to use the process of synthesis as a means of explaining a particular phenomenon.
Interpretive synthesis
A category of syntheses that try to interpret and understand the world by bringing together, interpreting and arranging the findings from different studies to gain deeper understandings of a particular phenomenon.
iSoQf
Interactive Summary of Qualitative Findings Tables.
To offer a fuller account of the phenomenon by arranging the studies’ metaphors in some order … to construct an argument about what the set of ethnographies say” (Thorne et al 2004).
Line of argument (synthesis)
A component method of meta-ethnography that seeks to organise findings from multiple studies into a single explanatory line of argument.
Overview and synthesis of multiple qualitative evidence syntheses using the methods of meta-aggregation. Does not focus on the generation of new theory nor aims to provide deepened conceptual interpretations of findings [unlike mega-ethnography], but rather aims to provide an overview of the existing evidence, identify evidence gaps and make recommendations for future research or immediate action.
Mega-ethnography
Synthesis of qualitative evidence syntheses using the methods of meta-ethnography refined for large studies. The innovation of mega-ethnography is to use conceptual findings from qualitative evidence syntheses as primary data.
Meta-aggregation
The methodology of qualitative evidence synthesis that is ‘most transparently aligned with accepted conventions for the conduct of high-quality systematic reviews. Meta-aggregation is grounded in pragmatism and transcendental phenomenology.’ In a meta-aggregative review ‘the reviewer avoids re-interpretation of included studies, but instead accurately and reliably presents the findings of the included studies as intended by the original authors.’
Meta-ethnography
The most common method of synthesis of qualitative research, originally used to synthesise ethnographies but now used to refer to the synthesis of other study types, typically with the objective of theory generation.
Meta-Interpretation
Method that follows ideographic rather than pre-determined approach to development of the following components: exclusion criteria, a focus on meaning in context, interpretations as raw data for synthesis, an iterative approach to theoretical sampling of studies for synthesis, and a transparent audit trail demonstrating the trustworthiness of the synthesis (Kastner et al, 2012).
Meta-interpretation
Approach to the interpretive synthesis of qualitative research that seeks to maintain an interpretive epistemology that is congruent with most primary qualitative research (Weed, 2005). Features of meta-interpretation comprise: An ideographic (i.e. not pre-determined) approach to development of exclusion criteria; A focus on meaning in context; Interpretations as the raw data for synthesis; An iterative approach to the theoretical sampling of studies for synthesis; A transparent audit trail as a guarantor of the integrity and trustworthiness of the synthesis.
Meta-narrative
Method developed from the need to synthesize evidence to inform complex policy-making questions that involves looking across different paradigms/research traditions to uncover their ‘unfolding storyline” resulting in maps of ‘meta-narratives’ (Kastner et al, 2012).
Meta-narrative review
Seeks to illuminate a heterogeneous topic area by highlighting the contrasting and complementary ways in which researchers have studied the same or a similar topic. Metanarrative review looks historically at how particular research traditions have unfolded over time and shaped the kind of questions being asked and the methods used to answer them.
Metaphor
An explanatory idea in the form of a figure of speech in which a word or phrase is applied to an object or action to which it is not literally applicable.
Meta-study
Multi-faceted, interpretive approach to synthesis developed to study the experiences of a population that consists of 3 components to be performed prior to synthesis: meta-data-analysis, meta-method, and meta-theory. Meta-study derives questions from each of its three components to which it subjects the dataset and inductively generates a number of theoretical claims in relation to it.
Meta-summary
‘An original approach to handling a collection of qualitative studies. . . the frequency of each finding is determined and the higher the frequency of a particular finding, the greater its validity.’
Mixed studies review
Review that simultaneously examines qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods primary studies to provide a greater understanding of a health issue than one type of research approach alone (including the process of searching, analysis and study quality appraisal) (Kastner et al, 2012).
Model
A theory, hypothesis, representation or idea. Meanings vary according to different academic disciplines. In psychology, a model is a theory to predict outcomes and explain specific psychological processes. In qualitative research in sociology, a model is a verbal or graphic form of representing data or knowledge.
Narrative (or narrative format)
Method of synthesis, which can be expressed in written words, tables or by visual representation (diagrams).
Narrative synthesis
Common approach to synthesis of data in systematic reviews that goes beyond simply describing and summarising the main features of included studies. It enables investigation of similarities and differences between studies, exploration of relationships within the data and assessment of the strength of the evidence, and results in a summary of knowledge related to a specific review question that may be used to inform practice or policy (Lisy & Porritt, 2016).
Nvivo
Software programme which supports the analysis of qualitative data.
An acronym standing for Perspective, Setting, Phenomenon of interest/Problem, Environment, Comparison (optional), Time/Timing, Findings, an extended question framework designed to describe both wider context and immediate setting that is particularly suited to qualitative evidence synthesis and complex intervention reviews.
Phenomenon of Interest
A generic expression to be used only when describing the methodology of the CERQUAL Approach. Where appropriate prefer the precision of “Views of the Phenomenon of Interest” or “Experiences of the Phenomenon of Interest”. Where a specific identifiable Phenomenon of Interest is intended then Prefer using review specific terms e.g. Views of Males.
Philosophical stance / underpinning
Refers to the underlying world view or belief systems upon which different research paradigms are based. Qualitative and quantitative approaches are rooted in different philosophical traditions or paradigms.
PICo
Acronym used for components of qualitative review questions that stands for Population; phenomenon of Interest; Context.
PICOC
Acronym to capture a precise review question by specifying the five elements of Population – Intervention – Comparison – Outcome – Context : an expanded mnemonic for a focused question.
Positionality
Refers to the stance or positioning of the researcher in relation to the social and political context of the study—the community, the organization or the participant group.
Positionality
Also see Reflexivity.
Primary study/ies
Original research studies; particularly used in contrast to secondary studies which are reviews or syntheses, carried out to answer specific issues or questions. It can involve questionnaires, observation, surveys, clinical trials or interviews with individuals or small groups.
Purposive sample
Also referred to as judgement, selective or subjective sampling. Used in qualitative research for the identification and selection of ‘information-rich cases’, e.g. key participants or journal articles related to the topic of interest. The researcher relies on their own judgement to select the cases based on knowledge of the research topic.
Purposive sampling
A group of non-probability sampling techniques in which units are selected because they have characteristics required in the sample (e.g. population, contextual, intervention or study charcateristics). Purposive sampling may exert a negative effect on the relevance and adequacy of the included findings.
Qualitative Assessment and Review Instrument – Software and corresponding critical appraisal intrument from Joanna Briggs Institute for performing quality assessment of qualitative research studies and subsequent synthesis.
Qualitative comparative analysis
Offers a systematic means for case-oriented analysis. Method not only provides a standardized procedure for qualitative research but also serves as an instantiation of deterministic methods. (Lucas & Szatrowski, 2014).
Qualitative evidence synthesis
Umbrella term, popularised within the Cochrane Collaboration, for “the methodologies associated with the systematic review of qualitative research evidence, conducted either as a stand-alone review or as a part of a review of complex interventions, systems or of guideline development”.
Qualitative interpretive meta-synthesis
Specifically within social work, a synthesis of qualitative studies that results in generation of a more in-depth understanding of the phenomena studied that can be then used to develop theory and inform practice and policy. Methodology designed to enable a synergistic understanding of phenomena with richness in diversity of settings, participants, and qualitative traditions.
Qualitative meta-summary
Qualitative approach that "entails treating research reports as indexes of the studies conducted, and the research findings in these reports as indexes of the experiences of the persons who participated in those studies."
Qualitative meta-synthesis
An intentional and coherent approach to analysing data across qualitative studies. It enables researchers to identify a specific research question and then search for, select, appraise, summarise, and combine qualitative evidence to address the research question.
Qualitative research
Explores people's beliefs, experiences, attitudes, behaviour and interactions. Asks questions about how and why. For example, why people want to stop smoking, rather than asking how many people have tried to stop. It generates non-numerical data, such as a person's description of their pain rather than a measure of pain. Qualitative research techniques such as focus groups and in depth interviews may be used to find out more about the views and experiences of the target population or practitioners. Qualitative research uses individual in-depth interviews, focus groups or questionnaires to collect, analyse and interpret data on what people do and say. It reports on the meanings, concepts, definitions, characteristics, metaphors, symbols and descriptions of things. It is often exploratory and open-ended.
Qualitative research synthesis
specifically within education, relies upon sophisticated interpretivist methods and is one of a range of refined approaches that has developed from efforts to offer synthesis methods with increasing levels of specialisation, criticality and interpretation.
Qualitative synthesis
“Any methodology whereby study findings are systematically interpreted through a series of expert judgments to represent the meaning of the collected work. In (QES), the findings of qualitative studies – and sometimes mixed-methods and quantitative research – are pooled.”
Qualitative systematic review
Generic term for a systematic review that identifies, assesses and interprets qualitative research. Only use this term when first introducing the topic, link to Qualitative Evidence Synthesis at the earliest opportunity and then from that point onwards use only “Qualitative Evidence Synthesis”
Qualitative systematic review. See preferred term Qualitative Evidence Synthesis [Qual]
“Method for integrating or comparing the findings from qualitative studies. It looks for ‘themes’ or ‘constructs’ that lie in or across individual qualitative studies” (Grant & Booth 2009)
QUART
Quality of Reporting Tool - instrument for assessing reporting limitations in a primary qualitative research study.
Rapid or resource-constrained qualitative evidence synthesis that uses accelerated or abbreviated methods to deliver findings when time or other resources are limited.
Rapid qualitative review (Also known as Rapid Qualitative Evidence Synthesis) [Qual]
Type of qualitative evidence synthesis emerging in response to the needs of healthcare decision makers for syntheses of patients’ perspectives and experiences (Campbell et al, 2019).
Rapid realist review Also known as: rapid realist synthesis
“Applies a realist approach to knowledge synthesis ("What works for whom under what circumstances?") to produce a product that is useful to policy makers in responding to time-sensitive and/or emerging issues within limited time and resources.” (Booth 2016, edited).
Reciprocal translation
One of the three principal synthesis activities of meta-ethnography, namely, “the understanding of one study's findings in terms of another's” (Melendez-Torres et al, 2015).
Reciprocal translation
A data analysis process used in meta-ethnography when concepts in one study can incorporate those of another because they are similar in meaning. Authors identify key themes, metaphors or concepts and attempt to translate these into each other. See also translation.
Reflexivity
The capacity of a researcher to consider the effect that their relationship to the subject or participants of a study may have on the conduct and interpretation of that study.
Refutational synthesis
A stage of meta-ethnography (q.v.) where the reviewer is involved in a purposive search for phrases, metaphors and themes that refute any emerging patterns that have emerged from included data.
Refutational synthesis
A data analysis process used in meta-ethnography when the concepts in different studies- or the studies themselves- contradict or refute one another. Authors characterize and interpret contradictions.
Reporting criteria
Criteria required from the reviewer in which they are reporting the process they undertook.
Reporting guidelines
Lists of criteria that itemise the individual components that should be documented when reporting or publishing a particular type of study. Reporting guidelines, which seek to assure the quality of the production of a research study, should not be confused with, or used interchangeably with, critical appraisal or quality assessment checklists which are designed for the consumer of the research, whether they be a reader or someone involved in subsequent review or synthesis.
Respondent validation – (also known as member checking)
A technique used by researchers to help improve the accuracy, credibility, validity and transferability of a study. Typically the interpretation and report (or a portion of it) are given to members of the sample (respondents/ informants) in order to check the authenticity of the work. Feedback from the members of the sample serves as a check for whether the interpretation is viable.
RETREAT
A mnemonic to encapsulate the seven considerations determining choice of qualitative evidence synthesis methods from the methodological literature, namely: Review question-Epistemology-Time/Timescale-Resources-Expertise-Audience and purpose-Type of data.
Retrospective reflexivity
A type of reflexivity that refers to the effects of the study on the researcher. This process of self-reflection occurs after the research has been conducted, and it involves examining how the research process has influenced the researcher’s own beliefs, values, and assumptions.
Review protocol
A document compiled at the beginning of a systematic review project that outlines the review topic and the methods to be used in conducting the review.
Richness scale
A scale where the richness of data in an included study is not ranked by the total amount of data but by the amount of data that is relevant to the synthesis objectives.
Risk to rigour
Potential threats to the quality and rigor of qualitative research that can arise from various sources, such as the research design, data collection methods, data analysis techniques, and interpretation of the findings. Ways to assess the risk to rigour in qualitative research may include checklists, frameworks, or guidelines.
The selection of a subset of studies from within a population of studies in order to represent the characteristics of the whole population. Typically, in quantitative systematic reviews a comprehensive sample is selected. However, in qualitative systematic reviews purposive, theoretical considerations may determine the appropriate selection of studies in order to arrive at a holistic interpretation of the phenomenon. Less commonly, sampling approaches may include maximum variation sampling or selection of information rich cases. sampling in terms of the population included in an individual research study is a concern addressed by assessment of methodological limitations with implications for the adequacy, coherence and relevance of the resultant findings.
SBU Tool to assess methodological limitations of qualitative evidence synthesis
Quality assessment tool used to assess the quality of an individual qualitative evidence synthesis.
Second order construct
In qualitative research, second-order constructs describe the relationships between first-order constructs, typically as interpreted by the author(s) of that study. Second-order constructs are typically derived from the participants’ own words and experiences but then undergo a further layer of interpretation within the rsearch team thereby leading to a deeper understanding of the phenomenon being studied.
Sibling reports
(Also known as sibling papers) – additional reports associated with an index paper or index study – for example a process evaluation separately published from an index randomised controlled trial.
Sibling studies
Term devised within the Cochrane Qualitative and Implementation Methods Group to describe additional studies associated with a particular index study (e.g. a feasibility study, qualitative study and process evaluation associated with a randomised controlled trial).
SPICE
Setting - Perspective- Interest, Phenomenon of – Comparison – Evaluation : a variant of the PICO mnemonic designed for social science questions by Booth (2006).
SPIDER
Acronym for Sample, Phenomenon of Interest, Design, Evaluation, Research type. Alternative search strategy tool to SPICE (see above) for qualitative/mixed methods research.
STARLITE
A mnemonic used to convey the essential elements for reporting literature searches in support of qualitative evidence syntheses. STARLITE stands for sampling strategy, type of study, approaches, range of years, limits, inclusion and exclusions, terms used, and electronic sources.
Strength of evidence
Overall assessment of the quality of a body of evidence, either in general or relating to a specific finding, that relates to its facility to sustain subsequent policy decisions or actions.
Study finding
The most basic descriptive or analytical unit within a qualitative evidence synthesis. A study finding from a single primary study is subsequently combined with other study findings from the same or different primary studies to produce a richer/thicker descriptive or analytical review finding.
Summarised finding
The synthesised output of the qualitative review (QES) process that seeks to characterise and describe data captured by findings from individual studies.
Synthesising translations
The analytic synthesis process in a meta-ethnography. According to Noblit & Hare, the originators of meta-ethnography, it involves ‘making a whole into something more than the parts alone imply,’ i.e. the synthesis aims to provide a fresh interpretation of a phenomenon.
Narrative approach that “involves a commentary reporting on study characteristics, context, quality, and findings.
Thematic synthesis
The use of methods analogous to thematic analysis in primary qualitative research in systematic reviews to bring together and integrate the findings of multiple qualitative studies.
Theoretical saturation
The point within an interpretive review at which all data can be coded into an existing category, new categories are not emerging, and the existing category structure appears stable or secure. In meta-ethnography this means that all alternative or refutational interpretations have been considered and incorporated in the final synthesis.
Theory
An organised set of concepts or ideas that explains a phenomenon, or set of phenomena, under review.
Thickness
A property of data from individual studies, or data collectively underpinning a finding, that relates to its facility to depict all aspects of the included studies required to make an informed assessment.
Tool
A specific checklist, instrument or document, often developed outside the CERQUAL project, that supports the implementation of one or more of the CERQUAL components.
Transferability
The ability to apply results of research in the context of one or more study populations to the context of a target population. Also, the extent to which a review invites its readers to make meaningful connections between elements of the review and their own experiences.
Translation
The analysis process in a meta-ethnography. According to Noblit and Hare, it is about systematically comparing the meaning of different studies, taking account of the different study contexts (e.g. where and when they were done and with whom). It is through exploring the similarities and overlap (reciprocal translation), differences (refutational translation) or different aspects of the topic contained in the various studies (line of argument synthesis) that an interpretive synthesis of the studies is achieved.
Although normally used in quantitative research, it refers to assessing whether the review adequately answers the aim and questions as set at the start (does it answer the questions in a valid way?).